One of the most remarkable aspects of the Viking Age was the extensive trade network maintained by the Norse people. This network spanned from Greenland in the west to Baghdad and central Asia in the east, encompassing the vast territory in between.
During this era, as in previous times, the Scandinavian economy primarily operated on a subsistence level. The majority of individuals lived on rural farmsteads, where each household produced most of the essentials required for survival, and luxuries were scarce. Nonetheless, even before the Viking Age, there was some limited domestic trade, mainly through seasonal rural markets.
Around the start of the Viking Age in the eighth century, Scandinavia saw the emergence of its first urban centers around the Baltic Sea and North Sea. While only a small percentage (about 1-2%) of the population resided in these "trade towns," their impact on the Scandinavian economy was profound. These trade towns effectively connected Scandinavia to the broader Eurasian trade networks of the time.
While most Scandinavian farmsteads produced their necessary craft goods, such as clothing and tools, with the rise of trade towns, more people could specialize in various crafts. Full-time craftspeople like blacksmiths, jewelers, bead-makers, and antler-workers flocked to these trade towns to create goods for export to foreign markets, rather than just for subsistence or limited domestic trade.
Archaeological excavations at Hedeby, a significant Scandinavian trade town, reveal the extent and diversity of Viking Age trade. Evidence includes items like small ceramic bottles with mercury, amber, iron bars, lead, silver, brass, foreign jewelry (such as carnelian and rock crystal), glass, foreign pottery, silk, counterfeit Arab dirhams, and wine barrels from the Rhineland, which were repurposed to line well shafts. Northern products like walrus bones, reindeer antlers, Norwegian soapstone, and whetstones were also traded in Hedeby. While fur and textiles were also traded, they left less archaeological evidence due to their organic nature. Hedeby was even involved in the slave trade, as evidenced by the discovery of iron locks from slave fetters in the town's harbor.
Furs from Scandinavia, known for their thick and luxurious pelts due to the cold climate, were highly sought after in foreign markets and constituted one of the mainstays of Viking trade. The other significant pillar was the trade in slaves. Slavery was a common practice across Eurasia during this period, with the Vikings participating in it as well. They primarily sold captives, both Scandinavians and non-Scandinavians, pagans, and Christians, to buyers in the Arab Caliphate, with transactions occurring in Eastern Europe and Mediterranean ports.
Interestingly, trade towns themselves were not immune to Viking raids, as they were seen as attractive targets due to the valuable goods produced and exchanged there.
The Vikings' involvement in international trade primarily stemmed from the desire of their rulers for foreign luxury goods, which served as status symbols. It's no surprise that many trade towns were founded and governed by Viking chieftains themselves.
Wealthy chieftains could afford to reward their warriors generously, which in turn increased the size of their armies. A larger army enhanced a chieftain's success in raids, further boosting his wealth and influence.
Even simple Viking farmers sometimes possessed silver weights, indicating they had some silver for acquiring items from the outside world. This suggests that while trade primarily served chieftains' luxury needs, it also had a broader purpose. Rural inhabitants surrounding trade towns often exchanged their surplus, typically food, for other goods passing through these centers.
Around the year 1000, there was a significant shift in trade dynamics. Bulk trade of commodities became more prominent and began replacing the earlier luxury-focused trade. Many of the luxury-era trade towns disappeared, leaving behind ruins and wilderness. This shift was linked to a political transformation in Scandinavia, transitioning from a chieftain-based model to one characterized by kings ruling larger territories. The wealth generated by trade towns contributed to the rise of powerful chieftains who eventually became kings, and these trade towns evolved into larger urban areas serving as administrative centers for the new monarchs.