The first systems of writing developed and used by the Norse and other Germanic peoples were runic alphabets. The runes functioned as letters, but they were much more than just letters in the sense in which we today understand the term. Each rune was an ideographic or pictographic symbol of some cosmological principle or power, and to write a rune was to invoke and direct the force for which it stood. Indeed, in every Germanic language, the word “rune” (from Proto-Germanic *runo) means both “letter” and “secret” or “mystery,” and its original meaning, which likely predated the adoption of the runic alphabet, may have been simply “(hushed) message.”
Each rune had a name that hinted at the philosophical and magical significance of its visual form and the sound for which it stands, which was almost always the first sound of the rune’s name. For example, the T-rune, called *Tiwaz in the Proto-Germanic language, is named after the god Tiwaz (known as Tyr in the Viking Age). Tiwaz was perceived to dwell within the daytime sky, and, accordingly, the visual form of the T-rune is an arrow pointed upward (which surely also hints at the god’s prominent role in war). The T-rune was often carved as a standalone ideograph, apart from the writing of any particular word, as part of spells cast to ensure victory in battle. (See Part IV for more examples.)
The runic alphabets are often referred to as "futharks," a term derived from the names of the first six runes: Fehu, Uruz, Thurisaz, Ansuz, Raidho, and Kaunan. This naming convention is similar to how the word "alphabet" comes from the names of the first two Semitic letters: Aleph and Beth. There are three primary futharks:
1. Elder Futhark: This 24-character runic alphabet was the first fully-formed runic script and was in development by the first century CE, with completion before 400 CE.
2. Younger Futhark: Around the beginning of the Viking Age (c. 750 CE), the Younger Futhark began to diverge from the Elder Futhark. Eventually, it replaced the older alphabet in Scandinavia, and it consists of 16 characters.
3. Anglo-Saxon Futhorc: The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc is a runic script that developed in England and comprises 33 characters. It gradually evolved and added runes to the Elder Futhark.
Some inscriptions of the Elder Futhark divided its 24 runes into three "ættir" or "families," with each ætt containing eight runes. However, the exact significance of this division remains unknown.
Runic inscriptions were traditionally carved onto hard surfaces such as stone, wood, bone, or metal, rather than being written with ink and parchment. This method of carving explains the sharp, angular shapes of the runes, which were well-suited for carving into solid materials.
Much of our understanding of the meanings attributed to the runes by the ancient Germanic peoples comes from the "Rune Poems." These documents, originating from Iceland, Norway, and England, provide a short stanza about each rune in their respective futharks. The Icelandic and Norwegian Rune Poems cover the Younger Futhark, while the Old English Rune Poem discusses the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc.